An Illuminated Book of Games

Statue of Alfonso X at the entrance to the National Library of
Spain in Madrid, sculpted by José Alcoverro y Amorós, 1892.

Alfonso X of Castile, Calicia and León was a Castilian monarch who ascended the throne in 1252, and ruled until his death in 1284.  He began the Siete Partidas, or "Seven-Part Code", a statutory code, which was followed up to the 19th century in Latin America, and is considered one of the most important judicial works of the Middle Ages.  Besides Latin America, parts were in effect in areas of the United States, such as Louisiana, that had belonged to Spain and used civil law.  Most of its principles can still be found in the civil codes and laws of Latin American countries.  Because of this, he is one of the twenty-three lawmakers depicted in the United States Capitol, in the House of Representatives chamber.

Alfonso X.  Image courtesy of this U.S. Capitol.

But he is also famous for a manuscript on games, Libro de los Juegos, or The Book of Games.  This was an Arabic work he translated into Castilian with added illuminations.  Completed in 1283, he had intended to create the perfect manuscript.  Alfonso had a scriptorium in Toledo, a major cultural center of Europe at that time.  A scriptorium, literally "place for writing" was a room devoted to the copying of manuscripts.  Most of the work in Alfonso's scriptorium was of translations of Arabic, Greek, and Hebrew texts into Castilian.  While a huge number of translations were made, there were very few original works.

Manuscript book mural, part of Evolution of the Book series, by John W.
Alexander, 1896.  LOC Thomas Jefferson Building.  This depicts a scriptorium.

The Libro de los Juegos mainly examines three games:  chess, dice, and backgammon.  It includes some of the earliest known descriptions of these games. It holds that chess demonstrates the merit of the intellect; dice exemplifies that chance has supremacy over intellect; and backgammon is a melding of chance and intellect.

Alfonso X de Castilla (close-up from above).

The original is in the library of the monastery of San Lorenzo del Escorial near Madrid.  A later, 1334, copy is in the library of the Historical Academy of Madrid. Because there was only the one copy originally made, this suggests it was for Alfonso's personal use.  This is an important text in the research of the history of board games.

The library at the El Escorial monastery.  It has 45,000 printed works from
the 15th and 16th centuries, and 5,000 manuscripts.

The manuscript consists of 98 leaves of parchment, bound in sheepskin, and is roughly 16" x 11" in size.  There are many color illustrations, and 151 miniature paintings.  It was common for multiple artisans to work on a manuscript in a scriptorium.  Although they were given different assignments, some shared the same task.  This would account for the variety of framing techniques in the illustrations - some are geometric and have embellished corners; others have architectural elements like rooftops, colonnades, and tents.  Facial types and the posturing of figures also differ.

The text is divided into seven treatises, and each deals with a specific category of board games.  Altogether there are 144 games, problems, and variants.  In the first part, "Libro del acedrex", there are 103 chess problems and a variant.  The second part, "Libro de los dados", shows twelve dice games.  The third, "Libro de las tablas", has fourteen versions of backgammon.  The fourth has three related games:  a chess variant; a dice game using seven or eight-sided dice (invented by Alfonso); and a larger variant of backgammon.

The fifth treatise has games designed for four players.  The sixth explains four variants of a type of game called mill, or Nine Men's Morris in English, and describes the boards they are played with.  The last part has elaborate and symbolic variants of chess and backgammon, including a gamed played on a board with concentric circles with radii dividing it into twelve areas, each assigned to a sign of the zodiac, called "astronomical chess".  (In the final section of the book, the games are discussed in terms of astronomy and astrology - "as above, so below".)

The illuminations are an integral part of the manuscript, and the symbolism is explained by the accompanying text.  These have references to medieval literature, art, science, philosophy, and law.  The illustrations show many ethnicities and social classes playing the games.  They reveal a culture with rich communal and religious diversity.

Libro de los juegos is a manual that serves to explain why games are played, but is also thought to be an allegory for leading a balanced life.  While it is not moralistic, it appears that Alfonso intended it to be a tool for teaching how to play the game of life.  Each game, it would seem, holds a clue.  For a long time, this manuscript was considered merely an interesting catalog of 13th century board games with great illustrations, but scholars who have studied it claim it reflects a complex attempt to relate the workings of the cosmos with those of humans.

Playing Mill, or Nine Men's Morris.

There are only two English translations of the book.  The first has been deemed to have quite a few problems, as the 12th century Castilian of the book is difficult to translate.  It is part of the biggest collection of chess books in the U.S., in the Cleveland Public Library's John G. White Chess Collection, and was done by George Fraser, circa 1895.  The second is a PhD dissertation by Sonja Musser, written in 2007.

This depicts the manuscript being made.

With modern methods of reproduction that would not harm the original manuscript, one can only hope that it can be made readily available.  A reproduction printed with an English translation would make this reader ecstatic. In the meantime, a trip to Spain in hopes of seeing one of the two copies there is on my bucket list.

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Images of the illuminations only of Libro de los juegos

courtesy of Wikipedia.
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Images of illuminations with original text
courtesy of http://games.rengeekcentral.com.

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Who Invented Chess?

The exact origins of the game of chess are unknown and controversial.  It is commonly held that it originated in India during the Gupta Empire.  In the 6th century it was known by the Sanskrit name of caturańga, but the first evidence of the game is from Sassanid Persia (circa 600 CE) where it was known as shatranj. It had four divisions of military - infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariotry - which later became pawns, knights, bishops, and rooks, respectively.  India is the most popular location for the origin of chess, but the theory is mostly a result of the British occupation of India, and how impressed they were with Indian civilization.

Krishna playing his consort Radha in this 18th century miniature.
Image courtesy of this www.nationalmuseumindia.gov.in. 

Another version of its origin is that it was invented by a royal advisor of a Persian king, who wanted to teach his sovereign prudence.  Persian texts say it came from "Hind", which is actually the land of the Indus, but frequently attributed to India. These texts are also repeating legends.  So far convincing archaeological evidence is missing, but the oldest known texts are Persian.  When the Arabs conquered Persia in the 8th century, they adopted the game and later introduced it to Europe where it had spread by the year 1000 CE.  The Sassanid Persian game was known as shatranj.  Islamic sets had abstract shapes to the pieces, following the taboo against depicting humans in art.

A Persian miniature of the game shatranj being played from a 14th century
manuscript describing how the game was brought from India.

Yet another theory is that it originally came from China.  China lays claim to an ancient game called Xiangqi, which may have played as early as the 3rd century BCE.  It was closely related to military strategy in ancient China.  Xiangqi is translated as "elephant game" or "figure game", but could also mean "constellation game".  To make things more interesting, apparently there was more than one game in ancient China called xiangqi, which also makes it more of a dilemma. The rules were evidently closely related to military strategy in ancient China.

Xiangqi board, courtesy of www.clubxiangqi.com.

There is also an ancient Chinese board game called Liubo (literally "six sticks"), which is thought to have been invented in the middle of the 1st millennium BCE. It was very popular in the Han Dynasty (roughly 200 BCE - 200 CE), but was then replaced by the game of Weiqi, or Go.  There is archaeological evidence for Liubo, and some literary evidence as well.  Liubo boards and game equipment have been found as grave goods.  The game had a board, counting chips, multi-sided die (one game found had an 18-sided dice), and six throwing sticks.  Many scholars believe that liubo was the basis for xiangqi, and it was transmitted to India where it developed into caturańga, but no liubo boards have been found outside of China.  Whether chess originated in China, India, or Persia is still to be definitively determined.  It obviously traveled along the Silk Road, the question is west to east, or east to west?

A pair of Eastern Han Dynasty ceramic tomb figures playing liubo.

Modern chess is a result of the game catching on in Europe.  The game went through a number of revisions in Europe, withstanding prohibitions and bans by the Church, until it became the game recognizable today. It did not become popular in northern Europe until figural pieces were developed. Because it was introduced through the courts, it became a prestigious game.  At one point in time it was played for money, leading Louis IX of France to forbid the gambling in 1254, but to no avail.  The game played in the Middle Ages was very slow, often lasting for days.  As rules changed, checkmate was easier and the games shorter. Some monarchs were known to use living people as chessmen on a checkered pavement or field.

Modern hexagon chess for three people.

Writings about chess began appearing in Europe in the 12th century, basically didactic works and works devoted to chess problems.  In the 15th century, there began to appear books on the theory of chess.  Strategies for openings and endgames were published.  Coffee houses in big European cities became centers for chess.  But one of the most interesting, and beautifully illustrated, books was completed in 1283.  (See tomorrow's post.)

I can conceive of playing this game...
(Image courtesy of www.dimensionalized.com.)

...but not this!
(Image courtesy of  www.matrixchess.nl.)

Soon competitive chess evolved, as did the variants of modern chess.  Today one can play speed chess, engage in competitions, and even play against computers. While it still retains the reputation of a game for brainiacs, it is played by all levels of society, and books on all aspects of it are being published.  Anyone for 3D chess?

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Unless otherwise noted, images are courtesy of Wikipedia.

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