Borobudur: The Architecture of Buddhist Cosmology

Image courtesy of UNESCO (see link below).

Borobudur is a temple located in central Java.  It is a shrine to the Buddha, and a pilgrimage place.  It was built between 750 and 842 CE.  Carved into the base of the temple are 160 carved reliefs, the most complete collection of Buddhist reliefs anywhere in the world.  Looking down on it, one can see a mandala - a microcosm of the universe - a pattern with spiritual and ritual significance for Buddhists and Hindus.

An aerial view of the temple from the Borobudur website (see link below).

The three zones of the universe are exemplified at Borobudur.
The foundation is approximately 387 feet on each side.
Image courtesy of the Borobudur website.

According to Buddhist cosmology, the universe has three zones, represented at Borobudur in rising layers.  The first is Kāmadhātu, the world of desire.  This world is inhabited by common people.  This is the base of the temple, which has been covered by a foundation and is hidden from view except for one corner that has been left uncovered for viewers.  These 160 reliefs carved into this base illustrate the law of cause and effect, and the collection is known as the Mahakarmawibhangga.  They illustrate the behavior of desire, including the invidious behavior of acts such as killing, rape, torture, and robbery.  There is a reckoning in the afterlife depicted for those committing these acts.  There are also reliefs showing meritorious behavior such as charity and working together.  When the base was dismantled and the reliefs discovered, they were photographed by Casijan Chepas in 1890.  These photographs are on view in the site museum.

The Buddha's mother, Queen Maya, retreats to Lumbini so that she may give
birth to Siddhartha Gautama, the future Buddha.  This is one of the reliefs from
the base, which do not depict a continuous story, nor are they all related to the
Buddha.  Beside the blameworthy and praiseworthy activities, they show other
aspects of everyday life.  This image and the one below courtesy of Wikipedia.

Here Siddhartha Gautama shaves his head in his preparations to become an ascetic.

Rupadhatu, or the world of forms, is the second layer.  It is a transitional zone, where humans are released from their desires for the physical world.  They continue living in the world and see forms but are not desirous of them.  This is comprised of four tiers, which have galleries of carved reliefs and niches with 432 statues of the Buddha, as well as depictions of Sanskrit manuscripts.  The top layer is Arupadhatu, the world of formlessness.  This is the abode of those who have become Buddhas.  These terraces have stupas containing Buddha sculptures that face outward.  The central stupa is empty; it is unknown if whatever was inside was removed, or whether it was always empty.

This image and the one below courtesy of Wikipedia.

There are no written documents that reveal who built Borobudur, but it is generally held that it was a ruler in the Sailendra dynasty, as the temple was built in the peak of their reign.  There is a lot of confusion as to the religious preferences of rulers at that time, but because known Buddhist kings allowed Hindu monuments to be built, and vice versa, it suggests a climate of tolerance existed.  There is a Hindu complex nearby known as Prambanan, which likewise has three levels corresponding to the zones of Borobudur.

Prambanan - the Hindu temple compound that also has three levels or zones.
This has suffered much earthquake damage, but is used by local Hindus today.
Image courtesy of the Borobudur website.

There are two smaller temples that appear in a straight line leading to Borobudur, Mendut and Pawon.  Although the exact relationship between the three temples is unknown, today they are part of a procession in the Waisak day festival.  This is held each year on the day of the full moon in April or May, commemorating the birth, enlightenment, and death of the Buddha.  It is an important day in the Buddhist calendar, and pilgrims from all over the world come to take part in the procession from temple to temple, ending at Borobudur.

Image courtesy of the Borobudur website.

Although it is unknown why Borobudur was abandoned, and there may have been many reasons, volcanic activity surely had a part.  When discovered, the site was covered in volcanic ash.  The capital of the kingdom was moved to East Java; then in the 15th century, there was a conversion to Islam.  All of these contributed to the desertion of the site, and it continued only in memory through local tales for centuries.

Mount Merapi seen ominously smoking in 2009.  Image courtesy of Wikipedia.

When the British took over Java in 1811, Sir Thomas Raffles was appointed governor.  He had an interest in Javanese history, and listened to the rumors about a big monument in the jungle.  He had the site cleaned, and the reliefs documented and interpreted.  In 1885, the hidden reliefs were found, which also had Sanskrit instructions left for the carver, from which the construction was datable.  Over the pursuing years the site was restored, and water damage from inadequate drainage was corrected.  After a 1973 renovation funded by UNESCO, Borobudur was used once again for worship.

Image courtesy of Wikipedia.

As an interesting aside, in 1982 Philip Beale, previously of the British Royal Navy, was in Indonesia to study ships and marine traditions.  He found ten panels at Borobudur showing sea vessels - some powered by oars, others by sails.  He thought since the other panels showed everyday life, these ships may have been part of the Cinnamon Route - a shipping route linking Indonesia to Africa across the Indian Ocean, past the Seychelles, Madagascar, and the Cape of Good Hope to Ghana.  With the help of experienced Indonesian shipbuilders, he had a ship modeled on the stone carvings constructed.  It was then launched on an expedition to retrace the route to Ghana.  The expedition took six months, demonstrating that ancient trading routes were viable.  The ship - the Samudra Raksa, "defender of the seas", is housed in a museum in Borobudur Archaeological Park.

The stone relief of an Indonesian trade ship.

The full-scale reconstruction of the above ship, here stored at the Borobudur site.
Both images courtesy of Wikipedia.

UNESCO made Borobudur a world heritage site in 1991.  Today it is the most visited tourist site in Indonesia, attracting pilgrims and art and architecture lovers alike.  A marvel when it was built, it is still one today.

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The Borobudur Archaeological Park website is here.

The UNESCO website for Borobudur is here.

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Gamelan - the Music of the Gods

A Javanese gamelan ensemble performance during a wedding in Indonesia.
Image courtesy of Gunkarta/Wikipedia.

A gamelan is a musical ensemble.  The name refers to a set of instruments as one entity, instruments that are made to be played together.  The word comes from the Javanese gamels, which means to strike.  Featuring a variety of instruments, and sometimes vocalists, it is a native Indonesian art form, commonly from the islands of Java or Bali.

A gamelan circa 1870-1891.  Image courtesy of H. Saltzwedel/ Tropenmuseum, Netherlands.

According to one myth, Sang Hyang Guru, a god who ruled as king of all Java in 230 CE, needed a way to summon the other gods.  He invented the gong, and when he needed to send more complex messages he added two more gongs.  This was the first gamelan set.  The role of the gong in gamelan is to keep the beat, although there are few craftsman that can make the large gongs that were once used.  Some of the oldest gongs are so revered that they are not played, and only approached through an established ritual.  In fact, all the instruments are sacred and treated thus.

A set of gongs at the Indonesian embassy in Australia.  Image courtesy of Wikipedia.

The earliest known image comes from 8th century central Java.  The temple of Borobudur has a bas-relief of musicians playing drums, bamboo flute, gongs, chimes, and a lute.  This is perhaps the ancient form of the gamelan.  Today's gamelan would typically include metallophones and xylophones.

The bas-relief at Borobudur.  Image courtesy of Gunkarta/Wikipedia.

There were once varied styles, two of which were termed "loud" and "soft", related to certain traditions.  By the 17th century, these styles had mixed, albeit in different ways, allowing for regional distinctions to be recognized by listeners familiar with the genre.  No two gamelans are the same, however, and each is distinguished by what instruments, voices, and tunings are chosen.  For the most part, styles are categorized by geographic areas - Balinese, Javanese, and Sudanese.  Outside these main areas, gamelans have spread to Malay, Suriname, and the Philippines.

Gamelan often accompanies rituals, ceremonies, dance drama and puppet performances.  It is very important in rituals.  The music is so pervasive that there are some gamelans that are used in Catholic ceremonies in Indonesia.  Some pieces are recognized by the audience as starts and ends; when an ending piece is played it cues the audience that the concert is concluding.

A Balinese gamelan.  Image courtesy www.seasite.niu.edu.

Groups constantly revise their pieces, in keeping with the concept that music should grow and change, except for certain songs which are considered too sacred to improvise with. Most gamelan is performed in a concert setting, sometimes in an open pavilion with a roof or an open-walled community center on a platform that enhances the acoustics.  Traditionally, men and women play in separate groups, except female singers sometimes perform with male groups.

Tuning the gamelan is precise and particular to each one.  Instruments are often paired and tuned a bit apart to produce an interference beat, where the sound waves superpose each other, which affects the amplitude.  The intention in religious ceremonies is to lead listeners to a meditative state or to feel God's presence.

All bamboo Gamelan performs in Bali, circa 1989.  Image courtesy Samuel Wantman/Wikipedia.

Originally, gamelan was like an oral tradition and was not written down, but in the 19th century in some areas a distinct notation was developed.  This is only to officially record pieces, not for reading them.  Today a cipher system is used that was developed circa 1900 in Surakarta, called kepatihan notation.  This notation, and others based on it, record only part of the music, the rest relying on memorized patterns.

An example of a gamelan notation system.  Image courtesy of this site.

Many western composers and musicians have been influenced by gamelan. Although Claude Debussy heard a Javanese gamelan play the 1869 World's Fair in Paris, there is no evidence of influence in his work.  However, his contemporary, Erik Satie, who also heard it at the same venue, incorporated it into his composition Gnossienne.  Others, such as John Cage, Béla Bartók, Pierre Boulez, and Philip Glass to name but a few, also show its influence.  Even modern Indonesian groups blend it with jazz and even bossanova.

A Western gamelan ensemble.  Image courtesy of West Carolina University.

Gamelan is one of the rich treasures of Indonesian culture, and as more of the world becomes exposed to it, its influences promise to be an enriching experience for music lovers everywhere.

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