"The Sistine Chapel of the Glass World"

That's what Susan Rossi-Wilcox, curatorial associate at the Harvard Museum of National History, calls The Glass Flowers, a collection of botanical models used for teaching.  These highly realistic glass botanical models are more formally known as The Ware Collection of Blaschka Glass Models of Plants.

Image courtesy of curious expeditions/flickr.

Leopold Blaschka and his son, Rudolf, were commissioned by the founder of Harvard's Botanical Museum, Dr. George Lincoln Goodale.  Dr. Goodale wanted them for students, since real plants have limited value for teaching because of their seasonal nature and short flowering periods.  At the time, only wax or papier-maché models were available, and these did not serve the purpose well.

Leopold Blaschka

Rudolf Blaschka
Images of both men courtesy of Journal of Antiques.

Dr. Goodale was familiar with the Blaschkas' work because they had a business making glass models of invertebrates, some of which were in the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology.  But while the glass flowers are unique and were specially made for Harvard, the invertebrates were mass manufactured and once sold through Ward's Natural Science Establishment catalog.  Some of them sold for only 50¢, which in the late 1800s was considered expensive.

Ercolania Pancerii (nudibranch), a relative of the jellyfish.
Image courtesy Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology.

A jellyfish.

Besides the Blaschka invertebrates at Harvard, there are others at the Boston Museum of Science, the Corning Museum of Glass, Cornell University, and the Harvard Museum of Natural History, just to name some places in the U.S.  These models were important before the advent of underwater photography and the development of decent facilities capable of housing creatures for study.

A sea anemone.  Image courtesy the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology.

Octopus.  Image courtesy of Jon Chase/Harvard Education Gazette.

The Blaschkas, who came from a long line of glassmakers and jewelers going back to the 15th century, initially signed a ten-year contract, and agreed to produce flowers half-time so they could continue their invertebrate business.  They ended up producing glass flora from 1887 until 1936 from their studio in Hosterwitz, Germany (near Dresden); Rudolf carried on the project after his father died.  The project was financed by Mary Lee Ware, a former student, and her mother Elizabeth Ware as a memorial to Dr. Charles Eliot Ware.

A glass bouquet given to the Wares by Leopold in 1889.
Image courtesy of Journal of Antiques.

The ten-year period that had been agreed upon made the selection of plants to replicate a serious consideration.  Some plants were sent to the Blaschkas to be cultivated in their own garden for reference.  Many of the plants on the list were in nearby botanical gardens and greenhouses.

Panic grass.

Echinocreus Engelmannii of the cactus family.
This image and one above from Journal of Antiques.

But eventually the Blaschkas needed to see and study tropical plants, so in 1892 Rudolf traveled to the Caribbean and various parts of the U.S. to view plants, make drawings and notes on colors, and collect what he could.  He made a second trip in 1895, but the trip was made short by the death of his father.

Image courtesy of Curious Expeditions/flickr.

Devil's bit with butterfly.  Image courtesy of above.

While some of the models are made of colored glass, many are "cold painted" with a thin wash of colored glass or metal oxide applied and heated until fused.  The painted ones are varnished.  Some of the parts are glued together, and some of the stems have wire armatures within.

A glass banana.

The pieces have suffered over time.  Vibrations from the 120,000+ visitors annually, and ultraviolet light (despite efforts to block it) have damaged and stressed some pieces.  There's also been some problem with glass corrosion, a process caused by a problem in the chemical composition of the original
glass formula, usually an inadequate amount of calcium oxide.

Bottle with glass disease.
Image courtesy of Wikipedia.

Glass disease, as this is called, occurs when a piece is exposed to higher levels of humidity.  This causes the alkalis in the glass to remain water soluble, and the salts hydrate and leach out of the glass.  Once the humidity is lowered, they form a crust.  They have undergone restoration, and are displayed in controlled humidity settings.

Glass disease on the surface of a glass
leaf from a model of an apple branch.
Image courtesy of Kris Snibbe/ Harvard
Education Gazette.

There are approximately 4,400 of the Blaschka glass flowers.  The Museum has organized displays, including a special section on plants and insects showing the different processes of pollination.  The work of the Blaschkas is still touted to surpass all modern models.  Their glass pieces are an amazing instance of Victorian craftsmanship.

Image courtesy Curious Expeditions/flickr.

***************

Unless otherwise noted, image courtesy of the Harvard Museum of Natural History.

*******************************

Opening Up the Known World to the Known World

Elias Ashmole's coat of arms, 1925, in a window of the
Museum of the History of Science, Oxford.

Combine acquisitiveness with perseverance, ambition, and wealth, and you have Elias Ashmole.  This son of a saddler lived a life of varied experiences, a lot of learning, and the desire to share.  It is thanks to his efforts that we have the first public museum in the world - the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford.

Elias Ashmole by John Riley, 1683.

Oxford began displaying objects with the University Art Collection, which began modestly in the 1620s with some portraits and objects of curiosity.  It was based in the Upper Reading Room in the Bodleian Library.  One of the curiosities was Guy Fawkes' lantern.  Jacob's Coat of Many Colors was supposedly included, but is now lost.  (?!?)  In 1636 and 1657 coins and medals were added.  In the 1660s and 1670s more portraits were added, then historical paintings,  landscapes, and scenes of contemporary life.

Guy Fawkes' lantern.

In 1677 Ashmole donated his collections on the condition that a suitable building be erected to house them and that they would be available to the public.  The first building - the Ashmolean Museum - opened in May of 1683.

The "Old Ashmolean", now the Museum of the History of Science.

The collections outgrew their space, and there were many sculptures donated that could not be shown.  In 1845 a new edifice was built that housed both the Ashmolean and the Taylor Institution, which accommodates the modern languages department.  The museum contains fine art and archaeological treasures, including the bequest of Sir Arthur Evans of Minoan fame (and the Keeper of the Ashmolean from 1884-1908).

The "New" Ashmolean Museum.  Image courtesy www.ashmolean.com.

The present Ashmolean was created in 1908, and combines the collections from the original Ashmolean with those from the aforementioned University Art Collection.  Some of the paintings from the Bodleian were included.  It was significantly remodeled between 2006 and 2009 (adding two floors), and reopened in November of 2009.

A modern staircase added in the latest remodel.

When the new edifice was built in 1845, the "Old Ashmolean" was used as office space for the Oxford English Dictionary staff.  Since 1924 the building has been used for the Museum of the History of Science, and includes early scientific instruments given to Oxford by Lewis Evans (brother of Sir Arthur Evans) featuring the world's largest collection of astrolabes.

Astrolabes image courtesy of DocBrown.com.

Ashmole himself was an alchemist and antiquarian.  He had studied at Oxford while he served as an ordnance officer for the King's forces there.  He held many military posts, but never participated in any actual fighting.  In 1669 he received a Doctorate in Medicine from Oxford.  His loyalty to his alma mater was his impetus to leave Oxford his collections.

The Alfred Jewel, an Anglo-Saxon ornament made in the reign of King Alfred
the Great in the late 9th century and discovered in 1693.  Donated to the
Ashmolean Museum by Colonel Nathaniel Palmer.

Ashmole was one of the first Freemasons in England, and was purported to possess the secret of the Philosopher's Stone.  From his writings we know that he was also a Rosicrucian.  Most likely his involvement in both groups was for social reasons, rather than religious, as he left little details about his association with either group.

Coins from the Ashmolean collection.

His published works are still considered valuable, and he preserved many works in his alchemical publications that would have been lost otherwise.  In 1650 he published Fasciculus Chemicus under the pseudonym James Hasolle.  It was an English translation of two Latin alchemical works.

Cover page of the Theatrum Chemicum Britannicum,
image courtesy of the University of Pennsylvania.

His most important alchemical work was published in 1652, Theatrum Chemicum Britannicum, an annotated compilation of alchemical poems in English.  Despite his interest in alchemy, he appears to have been a student rather than a practitioner. His last alchemical book was The Way to Bliss, published in 1658.  Said to be studied by Isaac Newton, it recommended ways to prevent illness by a good diet, moderate exercise, and enough sleep.

Close-up of the engraving from the above title page,
image courtesy of www.ashmolean.com.

There is still controversy about his motives for the Ashmolean.  John Tradescant the Elder was a gardener to various nobles, ending up as the Keeper of His Majesty's Gardens, Vines, and Silkworms for Charles I.  He had many opportunities to travel and did so, collecting mainly botanical specimens.  His son, John Tradescant the Younger followed in his father's footsteps.  In 1634 he was admitted as a freeman to the guild, the Worshipful Company of Gardeners.  He went to Virginia to gather plants, eventually taking up his father's position with the king.

Portrait of John Tradescant the Younger, 1652, attributed to
Thomas De Critz, image courtesy National Portrait Gallery, London.

In 1652, Ashmole helped Tradescant the Younger catalog the Tradescant collection, Musaeum Tradescantianum, and Ashmole published it in 1656. Tradescant the Younger left the collection to Ashmole, but his widow fought for it. The courts awarded it to Ashmole.  When the museum was built in Oxford and all the items were moved there, the Tradescant collection was significantly larger than Ashmole's.  This added fuel to the fire that Ashmole was trying to take credit away from the Tradescants and keep the glory of the collection for himself. However, much of Ashmole's collection had been previously burned in a fire.

Portrait of John Tradescant the Elder, 17th century,
attributed to Cornelis De Neve.

Ashmole also keep notes on his life in diaries, which he planned to use for an autobiography.  It was never written, but the notes have been an important source for information on his life and times.  Two-thirds of his library was left to the Bodleian when he died, again serving as fodder to the notion that he intended the museum for the Tradescant collection rather than his own.

Linear B Tablet, circa 14th century BCE.  Donated by Sir Arthur Evans in 1910.

An interesting man who lead a busy life.  Most importantly, whatever his motives, he contrived to share what he learned - whether in books or the Ashmolean Museum - and we are richer for it.

***************

Unless otherwise noted, images courtesy of the Ashmolean Museum.

*******************************

Good vs. Evil (and Giraffes to Boot)!

Image of the Cathedral of St. John the Divine and the Peace Fountain
courtesy of Gesalbte/Wikipedia.

The Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York City is the largest cathedral in the world.  (St. Peter's Basilica in Rome is not a cathedral, although it is larger.)  Begun in 1892, it is only two-thirds complete. 

Image courtesy of Kevin Tsui.

Part of that reason is that construction stopped on it during WWII, and wasn't resumed until 1979.  The main reason is that it is being done using traditional Gothic engineering, and stonecutters are hard to find.  In fact in 1979 stonecutters were brought from Europe to train locals, something the Bishop encouraged as a way to teach a valuable skill to neighborhood youths.  There is no foreseeable completion date.

Image courtesy of Kevin Tsui.

This mother church of the Episcopal diocese of New York is also where several famous people are interred, such as writers Madeleine L'Engle and John Gregory Dunne, as well as choreographer Robert Joffrey.  But it is also known for a weird fountain built in 1985 by Greg Wyatt, sculptor-in-residence.

The sculpture, called The Peace Fountain, is a depiction of the struggle between good and evil, shown here as the struggle between the Archangel Michael and Lucifer.  Apparently good is winning this time, as evidenced by Lucifer's decapitated head hanging under a giant crab claw.  This sculpture, like many pieces of art, has been met with mixed reactions.

Besides the decapitation, there is an odd mix of elements in the piece:  giraffes, a double helix at the base, old testament icons, and surrounding it are smaller bronze statues.  Despite that fact that its on the grounds of a Christian edifice, the smaller statues include Einstein, Socrates, Gandhi, Confucius, and John Lennon.

Confucius.

In keeping with the incompletion theme of the Cathedral, this fountain has yet to be hooked up with running water.  It sits in a sunken plaza with the small statues and plaques on the periphery.  Most of these have quotes by whoever is depicted.  John Lennon's has lyrics from his song "Imagine".

Noah's Ark.

There is a plaque at the base of the fountain that explains the artist's concepts and states the following:

Peace Fountain celebrates the triumph of Good over Evil,

and set before us the world's opposing forces - violence and

harmony, light and darkness, life and death - which God

reconciles in his peace.

When the fountain operates, four courses of water cascade down

the freedom pedestal into a maelstrom evoking the primordial

chaos of Earth.  Foursquare around the base, flames of freedom

rise in witness to the future.  Ascending from the pool, the freedom

pedestal is shaped like the double helix of DNA, the key molecule 

of life.  Atop the pedestal a giant crab reminds us of life's origins

in sea and struggle.  Facing West, a somnolent Moon reflects

tranquility from a joyous Sun smiling to the East.  The swirls

encircling the heavenly bodies bespeak the large movements of

the cosmos with which earthly life is continuous.

Nine giraffes - among the most peaceable of animals - nestle and prance 

about the center.  One rests its head on the bosom of the winged Archangel 

Michael, described in the Bible as the leader of the heavenly host against 

the forces of Evil.  St. Michael's sword is vanquishing his chief opponent, 

Satan, whose decapitated figure plunges into the depths, his head dangling 

beneath the crab's claw.  Tucked away next to the Sun, a lion and lamb 

relax together in the peace of God's kingdom, as foretold by the prophet Isaiah.

A white peacock living in the garden of the cathedral likes to hang out at the fountain, which seems appropriate adding to the artist's weird menagerie.  An interesting choice of art for a church long known for its interfaith tradition.  This is a refreshing change from most fundamental Christian artworks, and I applaud the Cathedral for choosing this anomaly of Christian art.

***************

Unless otherwise noted, images courtesy of kathika.com

*******************************

Masters of Disguise

A panther chameleon.  Image courtesy of this site.

Chameleons are very special and specialized members of the lizard family.  While the majority, about half of all species, come from Madagascar, they also hail from Africa, Asia, Portugal, and Spain, and Sri Lanka, and they have been introduced to California, Florida and Hawaii.  They are found in warm areas that range from deserts to rain forests.

Side view of a panther chameleon, courtesy of this site.

The very name has an ancient pedigree.  The English word is derived from the Latin chamaeleo, which is a borrowing from the ancient Greek khamailéon (a compound of the words for "on the ground" and "lion"), which in turn is a calque from the Akkadian word meaning "ground lion".

These little guys are courtesy of this site.

They are uniquely built for hunting and climbing, with stereoscopic eyes.  This gives them a 360º view, since their eyes work independently of each other, rotating and focusing separately yet simultaneously.  Their feet are zygodactylous - they have two "toes" facing forward and two facing backward, like many birds. They have prehensile tails and very long tongues which they can stick out very fast, which is fortunate as they can't move their bodies quickly.  These tongues are sometimes longer than their body length, and can hit prey in about 30 thousandths of a second.  At the tip of their elastic tongue is a structure covered in thick mucus which functions like a suction cup.  But most interestingly and uniquely they can change colors.

From G.A. Boulenger, Fauna of British India, 1890.
Image courtesy of Wikipedia.

Only some species can change colors, and different species change different colors.  For a long time it was thought that chameleons change color for camouflage, but now scientists have found that the primary reason for color change is to communicate mood changes to each other, hence functioning as social signaling.  While their basic pattern and color suits their habitat (and it does provide camouflage) light, temperature, and emotions determine their color changes.

Although these Peyrieras' pygmy chameleons are not the smallest, these
ground-dwelling ones are pretty tiny.  Image courtesy of this site.

If a dark chameleon detects a lot of light, its brain tells the yellow cells in its skin to become larger than the blue cells so that it turns green which helps deflect bright sunlight.  If the temperature gets cold, its brain tells it to turn darker so it can absorb more heat.  But mood is the most probably cause for color change.  When a chameleon gets mad it gets dark, which means it's willing to fight.  When it wants to attract a chameleon of the opposite gender, it displays brighter, flashier colors.

A common chameleon, turned black.  Image courtesy of Rickjpelleg/Wikipedia.

Their skin is transparent and they have layers which work together to produce color.  These specialized cells under their transparent outer skin are called chromatophores.  The first layer has two kinds of color cells, yellow and red.  The next layer has cells called iridophores or guanophores, which contain a colorless crystalline substance called guanine, which are strong reflectors of the blue part of light.

Veiled chameleon.  Image courtesy of Geoff/Wikipedia.

Under this layer are melanophores, which have a dark brown pigment called melanin.  This is the same pigment that determines skin color in humans.  The color cells alter the amounts of red, yellow, and brown in the skin.  How much pigment granules are in the cells alter the intensity of a color; if evenly distributed it causes strong color, but if the pigment is only in the center of the cell, it seems to be transparent.  All these cells can rapidly change pigments, and melanin can spread through the cells like a spiderweb.

These are horned leaf or brown leaf chameleons, courtesy of this site.

In an interesting study done in Australia, Smith's dwarf chameleons were watched when they were exposed to two different predators.  When they faced a fiscal shrike, they changed colors to produce the best camouflage.  When a boomslang snake was nearby, they didn't try as hard.  The conclusion was that since snakes have poor color vision, the chameleons didn't waste time and energy trying so hard.

Chameleon faced with shrike.

Chameleon faced with boomslang.

Whenever I see an image of a chameleon, I think immediately of the song "Karma Chameleon" by Boy George.  As it turns out, Boy George is a bit of a chameleon himself.....

*****************************